Manila Under the Union Jack

Carmina and Patch discuss the oft forgotten 20-month British occupation of Manila. They trace how a global conflict reached Philippine shores, the reasons for Britain’s invasion, and the unexpected husband-and-wife Ilocano heroes who emerged from this brief episode. Join them in the exploration of this short-lived conquest and how things could have been had the British succeeded. 

Learn more: Battlefield Diplomacy and Empire-building in the Indo-Pacific World during the Seven Years’ War, Yuchengco Museum exhibit: "The British Occupation of Manila and Cavite 1762–1764", Securing Trade: The Military Labor of the British Occupation of Manila, 1762–1764, The Manila-Madras Connection and the 1762 British Invasion of Spanish-ruled Philippines, 17th c Spanish Cannon (San Lorenzo), 17th c Spanish Cannon (San Pedro), Escudo de Armas, Spanish Armouries taken from Manila in 1762, Prelude-The British Invasion of Manila during the Seven Years’ War, Why the Chinese Helped the British Invade Manila in the 18th Century, Princeton University Library’s DPUL platform, Alexander Dalrymple, and 1762 Archive. 

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Transcript

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Welcome to FilTrip, a podcast where we explore everything fun, weird, and in between about the Philippines. Hi, Patch.

Hi, Carmina. So, this episode is about the British Occupation of Manila, and I was wondering why this was our episode choice in May.

The British occupied Manila in October 1762, and it ended in May 1764. That's one of the reasons why we chose to talk about this in May. And it happened during the Seven Years' War, which is a global conflict.

The two major factions in this conflict were Britain and France, and the Spaniards were allied with France. It was over territorial disputes, and Britain and France clashed over control of the Ohio River Valley, which is known in the US as the French and Indian War.

As we know, Manila was part of Spain's colonial empire and a key hub in the Galleon trade, which brought massive amounts of silver from Mexico. And because Spain tightly controlled the trade, Manila became known as a wealthy, but inaccessible city.

During the Seven Years' War, Britain decided to gain strategic control in the region and a British expedition of about almost 7,000 men based in India mostly and led by then-General William Draper and Admiral Samuel Cornish was sent to attack Manila in October of 1762.

The Philippines wasn't even their main target. There were actually two expeditions that were planned. The first originated in England and headed to Havana and the second began in Madras, which is now called Chennai.

So the Philippines was basically Britain's side quest. The takeover was described as too easy and it exposed Spain's weakness both internationally and locally. First of all, nobody told Manila that they were at war.

Spain's Vulnerability Exposed

Typically, Spanish colonies were presided over by a governor general and military commander. But the post in Manila was actually vacant for eight years. So when the British attacked, the acting governor general was a Mexican-born Archbishop of Manila named Manuel Rojo, who obviously had no military training.

Basically, when the British showed up with their force, he very easily surrendered, which was not considered the code of honor of the time.

As I mentioned earlier, there was about 7,000 troops from the British side. And at that time, Manila only had about 500 to 600 soldiers. Many of them were untrained and poorly equipped.

The second thing that this event exposed is that the Galleon Trade was very easily disrupted. So when the British invaded, they temporarily stopped the Galleon Trade and they opened up free trade. Now, this was said to have been the beginning of the end for the world's dependence on Manila as a major hub and on Spain's dominance in global trade.

The Galleon Trade was weakened to the point that it would last only 50 years more before it finally ended. And the third thing that happened because of this event was it sparked debate about Spain's failure and neglect as a colonizer.

During this surrender, infamously, there was supposedly lasted about 40 hours of British troops looting homes, churches, convents, and there were reports of widespread violence, including rape and killings. The British force that took Manila included both, naturally, the European troops and a large number of the Indian sepoys recruited from Madras. So these sepoys formed a significant part of the army and were used as infantry soldiers in the campaign.

And like other sepoys in British service, they were trained in European-style warfare, but were paid less and often treated as lower-ranking troops. Thus, the sepoys in Manila faced difficult living conditions. Aside from being poorly paid and poorly supplied, much of their salary was left behind in India for their families.

And while in Manila, they often depended on limited support from British officers. Because of a lot of these hardships, a significant number of them stayed behind either voluntarily or because they could not return. Many of these sepoys settled and integrated into many areas of the Philippines, particularly in Cainta, Rizal, where a large number of their descendants are still there.

They do have a lot of their cultural heritage were left behind. This included Car[e]-kare, the dish Car[e]-kare, and one of our very well-loved desserts. But can you guess which dessert?

Hmm. You're keeping me in suspense. Which one is it?

It's the bibingka.

Oh.

It has similarity in name and cooking method with the Indian dessert bibik from Goa. The Goan bibik, however, is a multi-layered pudding made with egg yolks, flour, and ghee. Whereas the Filipino bibingka is a single-layer rice cake made with glutinous rice flour.

We don't really know if it's true, but at least the name sounds very similar, right?

Remember when we were talking about carinderias in the Michelin episode? We said that the carinderias originated from these Indian sepoys who deserted. I don't know if you remember that.

That's the connection between that episode and this one.

Yes, that's right.

So speaking of India Patch, there's a monument called the Manila Trophy that was originally erected at Fort St. George in Madras in 1762. And we're linking to one article with a picture of remnants of that trophy. All other trophies from that time were transferred to London, but for some reason, this one remained in India.

And it now lives in the war trophy room at the Government Museum of Chennai.

So I wonder why it remains there.

I know, right? I don't know. Maybe it is because we were just kind of this side gig.

There are pictures in the article that we're going to link. One of them is called the Escudo de Armas, which is a coat of arms taken from the gates of Intramuros. Originally, this coat of arms was flanked by two Spanish cannons nicknamed the San Pedro and San Lorenzo, both living on the grounds and are still displayed to this day.

And speaking of which, Patch, the British took a whole lot more. Just a few examples, the San Agustin Monastery records. They looted that from the library in Intramuros, and there's a single volume called the Libro de Consultas that's now held at the British Library.

Another one is called the Velarde Map Copper Plates. These are the plates for the 1734 Scientific Map of the Philippines. Another one is called the Rojas Map, and it's a detailed map of Manila and its fortifications used by British batteries, currently in the British Library's King George III collection.

And I don't think this was in, this isn't any museum, but they also captured treasure ships. So you know how we said earlier that they interrupted the Galleon Trade. The British actually captured the treasure ship, Filipina, which was carrying silver from Acapulco, and the Santisima Trinidad, which had Chinese goods and porcelain.

That sounds like a lot, a lot of artifacts. Right?

That's not in the Philippines. And there are actually efforts now for the digital repatriation of these artifacts back to the Philippines called the 1762 Archive Project. And it's led by researchers from Princeton University and the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London.

And we're linking to that page in our show notes. If anybody is interested in seeing more about their efforts, it's so fascinating what they've been able to digitally repatriate. And of course, like if people want to support it, hopefully they'll find ways to do that in the link that we're going to provide.

Filipino Resistance

We've spoken about Filipino-Chinese population in Manila in previous episodes. And I was just curious also, because the British occupation primarily was in Manila. What were the reactions or the actions of the Chinese Filipinos during the occupation?

Chinese residents in and around Manila took an active role in the conflict. And they cooperated with the British forces. Around 900 Chinese fighters in Pampanga aligned themselves with Chinese groups in Manila against the Spanish authority.

I don't know why I'm surprised, but actually, that would make sense, right? Because they were very much oppressed during the Spanish occupation. So I guess this makes sense.

Although the British did not rely solely on the Chinese as a formal army, the Chinese help and cooperation obviously helped to stabilize the Spanish control. And when this whole invasion ended, the Spanish regained control of Manila. They carried out expulsions of the Chinese, and those were considered collaborators of the occupation.

So there was definitely a crackdown.

In fact, it wasn't really just the Chinese. So this is the other reason, a happy accident again, about why this is a timely topic in May. Do you remember last episode when we were talking about Ilocano cuisine?

We briefly mentioned Diego Ceylan.

Yes.

So Diego had a very important appearance in the British invasion because, as I mentioned earlier, the invasion really exposed that the Spanish colonizers were not invincible. And because the British were really having a hard time controlling any other territory outside of Manila and Cavite because of massive efforts being launched by the Spanish forces, the British never really were able to control any other place but Manila and Cavite. And Diego saw this as an opportunity from Ilocos.

There are conflicting details about Diego's life, but what seems to be consistent is that he was a thorn in the side of the friars and the administrative officials in Ilocos because he was an inspirational figure to a lot of Indios. And as we already mentioned at the last episode, the Ilocanos were resistant to Spanish abuses. And Diego has also described as charismatic and inspiring.

So he led a mob of 2,000 armed Ilocanos and protested at the residence of the Spanish alcalde in Vigan. And they demanded the abolition of tribute and forced labor. And he also demanded the replacement of corrupt local elites who facilitated exploitation locally.

Diego apparently was a very masterful double agent. He simultaneously wrote Simón de Anda, who was the main Spanish resistance leader, and declared loyalty to Spain. And apparently, when he wrote to the Spaniards, whether it be Anda or the Friars, he wrote in a very servile way, making it sound like he was their, you know, dutiful servant.

However, at the same time, he also wrote to the British Manila Council, and his letter had a very different tone. Apparently, he recognized George III as his king and master. He promised to help Britain if the Ilocanos would be freed from tribute.

One interesting aspect of this too is that he sent the British Manila Council a specific gift. 12 loaves of sugar, 12 baskets of kalamay, or the sticky rice, and 200 cakes and balls of chocolate.

Why?

I was like, why? Why those specific things? So, again, here's where his strategic mind came into play.

He meant for these gifts to prove the tangible benefits to the British should they gain his support. And this apparently worked because the British did recognize him as the governor of Ilocos. And they pledged military reinforcements.

Patch, one thing that jumped out at me was the description in the literature that said 12 sugar loaves. Because aren't loaves in reference to bread?

Yeah.

But apparently, that was a common way sugar was processed and traded back in the 18th century from Southeast Asia. They were basically compressed sugar loaves or solidified blocks.

He was very sneaky.

Definitely. Very much was trying to employ a strategy here.

And he pretty much controlled the Ilocos coastline. And that was very important because he's established a defensive position near Vigan. But of course, he wouldn't be a hero if there wasn't tragedy involved.

Right.

Initially, the British sent 50 soldiers, 20 of whom were Europeans and 30 were Indian sepoys. But of course, that's not enough, right? He was promised more reinforcements that never arrived.

So there's this lingering controversy whether Britain abandoned him or maybe they were just having difficulty penetrating the Spanish defenses. And it's one of these things in history that we can't fully know now.

But in the end, it did cost Diego his life because he was assassinated. And this is another significant reason why we're doing this in May is he was assassinated on May 28, 1763. By, guess who?

Is it a former friend, a former associate?

That's right. So there were two of them. Miguel Vicos, he was the one who delivered the fatal blow, but he was aided by a man named Pedro Bekbeck, who is a close aide and former ally of Diego.

And he used his position of trust to help Vicos gain access to Diego's home. And Miguel was persuaded by Spanish authorities and a clergy. And of course, they tried to connect it to the Virgin Mary somehow and tried to make it look like it was a blessing.

He was 33 years old at the time of his death.

And he famously died in the arms of his wife, Gabriela. And his last words were reportedly, Mata kayon, Gabriela, translated meaning, I am dying, Gabriela.

After his death, his wife, Gabriela Silang, continued the revolt.

Gabriela herself is such a fascinating figure in our history. And we celebrate her as one of the very influential female leaders of her time. But unfortunately, she was also captured and executed by the Spanish.

She deserves a whole episode.

Yep. So the characterization of Diego has changed over the centuries. Some called him a British collaborator, others called him a Spanish loyalist because of his double agent maneuverings.

But at the bottom of it, he was really trying to leverage this British colonial war to win freedom for the Ilocanos. It's really one of the most heartbreaking subplots of the British invasion.

So Patch, we mentioned it before, but the conflict ended because of the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

Treaty and Lasting Impact

And that formally ended the Seven Years' War.

On May 31, 1764, the Spanish forces formally re-entered and regained control of Manila, essentially ending the British occupation of the city. Their return in Manila was part of the broader implementation of the Treaty of Paris.

You know that the Philippines and Manila weren't even listed by name in the treaty. It was included by reference in Article 23, which specified that territories which are not included in the present treaty be returned. It's a recognition that whoever were in Paris negotiating the treaty could not have known and what else was conquered or not conquered.

And so that's why they included that article.

Yeah. And speaking of what's known and what's not known, after the signing of the treaty, the British forces remained in Manila and nearby Cavite for over a year after the treaty was signed.

Oh, they were just living it up there, huh?

Yeah. News of the peace reached Manila gradually through ships arriving from India. A ship from Madras arrived in July of 1763, bringing the word about ending all hostilities and additional documents arrived around August, so it's about a year.

Well, just to put everything in context, the other terms of the treaty involved Great Britain becoming a dominant world power. It gained almost all French territory in North America east of the Mississippi, including Canada, and they also acquired Florida from Spain. In exchange for ceding Florida to Britain, Spain regained control of, like we said, Havana and Manila, and France lost its mainland North American Empire.

To compensate Spain for the loss of Florida, France secretly ceded the Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi to Spain. France regained its profitable sugar islands in the Caribbean, such as Guadalupe and Martinique. Isn't it fascinating? All of these things that are interconnected.

A lot of the times, people fail to realize Filipino history is so much part of world history. We had such an impact, and yet, like what you mentioned, we weren't even cited in the Treaty of Paris.

The Treaty of Paris may have settled a lot of scores globally, but the Spaniards definitely had a score to settle, and you already mentioned one of them against the Chinese Empyrean. But for the Filipinos, it meant public punishment. Rebels who weren't executed were sentenced, for example, to 200 lashes in public squares.

Oh my.

The Spanish government reinstated the very systems that the rebels had fought against, like the one that Diego was fighting against, which is the tribute and the labor and the extortions. And they also rewarded loyalists and collaborators who assisted in the uprising.

However, all of this just sustained resentment against the Spaniards, and it didn't end, specifically didn't end the Ilocano dissent, right? And we talked about that a little bit last episode too.

What happened in Ilocos was that it drove their resistance underground, where seemingly on the surface, there was a period of pacification, but the legacy of resistance resurfaced in later movements, such as the Basi Revolt of 1807 that we talked about last time, which was also fueled by the same economic grievances against the Spaniards.

But like I also mentioned at the top of the episode, this really damaged Spanish prestige.

This encouraged future generations of Filipinos to believe that Spanish rule could eventually be overturned. And people like Rizal and Bonifacio certainly learned that lesson.

And then one last obscure discovery, Patch. Maps stolen from Manila may apparently have inspired this search for Australia.

What? I never heard that before.

Right?

How?

So these old Spanish maps that the British took from Manila gave the British information about the Pacific. And it encouraged them to have a long-running quest for what was called the Terra Australis Incognita, which was what they were calling Australia. It was kind of this mythical southern continent that they knew was there but never had discovered until they did.

Definitely an obscure fact, but a very important one, I think, if it led to the discovery of Australia.

You know, this is really an interesting episode to me, Carmina, because it gave me more information, obviously, about the British Occupation. But this short period of the British Occupation really exposed the weakness of the Spanish Empire.

It also emphasized that Filipino fighters played a major role. And it is important that we always emphasize the crucial role that Filipinos play.

One thing that keeps going through my mind is, what? We could have been British? Our ending wouldn't be, Oh, shasha. It might be more like, keep calm and carry on.

That's our episode. We hope you join us on our next trip. Oh, shasha. Ingat. That's hilarious. Thanks for listening to FilTrip with Carmina and Patch.

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